March 29 2025 Lunar Cycle
Chamomile (German)
Matricaria chamomilla
Common Name
Chamomile, camomile, German chamomile, Hungarian chamomile, manzanilla,
scented mayweed, sweet false chamomile, true chamomile, wild chamomile
Botanical Description
German chamomile is an herbaceous annual with delicate, feathery, mild aromatic leaves in fine filiform segments (Whitten, 2004) growing from a smooth, branching stem that typically grows between 12-24 inches (30-60 cm) in height (Missouri Botanical Garden, n.d.). The composite aromatic flowers measure between 0.4-0.8 inches (1-2 cm), arise from the apices on each individual stalk as a single flower (Whitten, 2004), and feature white ray petals surrounding a yellow disk of tubular florets in the center (Missouri Botanical Garden, n.d.). The main characteristic to tell German chamomile apart from similar-looking species is the hollow conical receptacle, which can be seen by splitting the flower head through the middle (Whitten, 2004).
Harvesting Guidelines
German chamomile flowers are usually harvested throughout the spring and summer over a 2-month period during which the herb continuously forms new flowers (Whitten, 2004). The chamomile flower is actually a composite head of yellow disc florets and white ray florets. The flowering begins with the outside florets and progressively moves towards the center of the head, which transforms from a flat shape to a rounded cone during the flowering process. The peak harvest stage is when the flowering progresses halfway up the flower head (Whitten, 2004). It is important to determine the right harvest time because when the flowers are picked too early there will be too many immature flowers, while leaving it too long leads to over-mature flowers among the harvest that will fall apart upon drying, reducing the overall appearance of the dried produce (Whitten, 2004).
For small-scale production, the flowers can be picked by hand or with the use of a manual flower comb. The flowers are easiest to harvest after the morning dew has dried off and the stems are sturdy (Whitten, 2004). Later in the day, slight wilting causes the flowers to break away with more stems, making the post-harvest processing more laborious. It’s important to note that chamomile flowers generate heat after picking; avoid too much flower compression in the collection vessel and carry the harvest to the drying area as fast as possible to prevent spoilage (Whitten, 2004). The flowers are best dried between 30-35 degrees C (86-95 °F) (Whitten, 2004).
Uses
Chamomile may appear wispy and gentle, but it is a powerful nervine and potent anti-inflammatory and one of the most versatile plants in the herbal apothecary, whether in clinical practice or in the home (Hoffmann, 2003). Chamomile is easy to grow, helps attract pollinators, and adds a cheerful beauty and gentle presence to the garden. Chamomile is one of the most favored herbal tea ingredients, and its typical blue-colored essential oil is widely used in the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industry (Barnes et al., 2007). The aromatic flowers are also a tasty addition to herbal lemonades and give a unique flavor to homemade lemon sorbet (Fleischhauer et al., 2016).
A beloved and popular herb the world over, Matricaria chamomilla is known specifically as German chamomile to distinguish it from its less commonly used cousin, Roman chamomile (Chamaemelum nobile) (Murti et al., 2012). However, the two species are often confused. German chamomile is an aromatic annual in the aster family (Asteraceae), and has at least 51 different synonyms; the species is also known as Matricaria recutita, Anthemis vulgaris, or Chamomilla recutita (Royal Botanic Gardens of Kew, n.d.), and these names are commonly found in both older and modern herbals.
The European Medicines Agency (EMA, 2015) describes German chamomile as a traditional herbal product used for minor gastrointestinal complaints including bloating and spasms. Chamomile is also suggested to soothe colds, minor ulcers, and inflammations of the mouth and throat, and topically applied to ease irritations and minor inflammations of the skin, such as sunburn and superficial wounds (EMA, 2015). The botanist physicians of the Renaissance described chamomile as a true panacea (Marzell, 1938/2002), while modern herbalists value the aromatic herb for its sedative, antispasmodic, and anti-inflammatory actions, as well as its calming and soothing effects on the gastrointestinal tract (Barnes et al., 2007).
The name chamomile is derived from the Greek khamaimēlon meaning “ground apple,” alluding to the apple-like scent of the plant (Murti et al., 2012). The Latin genus name Matricaria comes from “matrix,” meaning uterus, which is derived from mater, the word for mother. Historically, people in several European countries referred to chamomile as “mother herb,” because of its application during childbirth and postnatal care (Kleijn, 1970). Today, that folk name commonly refers to feverfew (Tanacetum parthenium). Chamomile was also known as “maiden flower,” believed to refer to the Greek physician Dioscorides who suggested the herb, amongst other indications, for menstrual health (Kleijn, 1970).
Chamomile has been used since at least the 1st century CE for digestive problems (Chevallier, 2000), but its use predates written history—chamomile, along with yarrow (Achillea millefolium), was found in scrapings from 50,000-year-old Neanderthal teeth discovered in northern Spain (Hardy et al., 2012). In De Materia Medica of Dioscorides (70/2000), three species of Anthemis are described, one of which is thought to be German chamomile. Unfortunately, it is difficult to untangle chamomile’s historical applications because the herb had many different names, thorough botanical descriptions were often lacking, and similar-looking herbs including Anthemis spp. and feverfew (Tanacetum parthenium) have been used interchangeably. This issue was highlighted by the botanist physician Otto Brunfels (1488-1534), one of the “fathers of botany” (Marzell, 1938/2002). In fact, he was so irritated after trying to find out what the old herbal masters wrote about chamomile that he accused some authors of deliberately describing chamomile in different ways just so they could publish a book on their own (as cited in Marzell, 1938/2002).
Authors Pardo-de-Santayana and Morales (2010) studied the folk botanical category for herbs known as chamomile in Spain and found that it included more than 60 similar species. The researchers noted that only the pharmacopeias of the 20th century started to restrict the common name chamomile or manzanilla to the three species Chamaemelum nobile, Matricaria chamomilla, and M. aurea. Before that time, there were many species of the Asteraceae family called chamomile and applied in similar ways (Pardo-de-Santayana & Morales, 2010).
Several authors comment that it is remarkable that 12th-century abbess and herbalist Saint Hildegard von Bingen (1098-1179) did not mention the use of chamomile, even though it was a common plant (De Cleene & Lejeune, 2000; Hertzka & Strehlow, 2003). However, other herbalists state that Hildegard’s “metra” was German chamomile rather than the commonly translated feverfew (Tanacetum parthenium), and was used to make a soup containing oil, butter or lard, water, and flour; this soup was used to ease constipation and painful menstruation, while the herbal juice mixed with butter was applied to wounds (Hozeski, 2001). However, a botanical description is lacking and the exact species remains unclear.
The first wood engraving of German chamomile was found in Gart der Gesundheit, also known as the Hortus Sanitatis (1485), one of the first printed herbals in the German language, written by Johann Wonnecke von Kaub (De Cleene & Lejeune, 2000). From the 16th century, chamomile is frequently mentioned in the herbal literature and its use became so popular that Hieronymus Bock (1498-1554), a well-known German botanist and physician, noted that he was not able to add new information about chamomile because there was no other herb so popular than the “cure-all” chamomile (as cited in Marzell, 1938/2002).
German physician Leonhart Fuchs (1543/2017) cites Dioscorides and clarifies the three species described in De Materia Medica (70 CE). A white-flowering species, called leucanthemum, or white chamomile, is the German chamomile according to Fuchs, while there is a yellow-flowering Anthemis species called chrysanthemon, and purple-flowering chamomile, eranthemon, that is not a chamomile at all, but a larkspur species (Delphinium sp.). Fuchs endorses Dioscorides and suggests using the entire herb, including its roots, prepared as a tea or a bath and applied to stimulate menstruation and ease flatulence, jaundice, and liver issues. The German chamomile is especially indicated as a diuretic and for eye infections, while an oil maceration applied as a suppository was indicated in cases of fever and constipation. Interestingly, Fuchs (1543/2017) also suggests drinking chamomile tea after being bitten by a viper; however, it is not clear if that particular use was based on empirical knowledge or an attempt to distinguish himself from the repetitively cited chamomile applications.
Culpeper (1643/1850) adds that in ancient Egypt, the herb was dedicated to the sun. Chamomile comforts all parts of the body that need warmth, he writes, and bathing in a chamomile bath eases pains and aches and reduces swellings. Culpeper makes a special mention that in his opinion, the best way to break down bladder stones is by taking half a dram (approximately 1 gram) of chamomile salt dissolved in a little white or Rhenish wine, ingested in the morning. Unfortunately, it is unclear how this chamomile salt was prepared, nor does he provide a botanical description of chamomile; in fact, Culpeper (1643/1850) explicitly states, ”It is so well known everywhere, that it is but lost time and labour to describe it” (p. 39).
It is believed that chamomile was one of the herbs grown in the Colchian garden of Hecate, where it was used for various infections (Müller-Ebeling et al., 2003). In ancient magical practices, the humble chamomile was also known as “blood of Hestia,” the Greek goddess of the hearth and home (Schaaf, 2014). It is not clear why the herb was connected to Hestia, but it was common practice in the ancient world for priests to name the common items they used in rituals after deities or body parts, giving them an exotic appeal and concealing their identity for ordinary citizens (Mirecki & Meyer, 2002).
In West Prussia (present-day Kwidzyn, Poland), it was once believed that chamomile should be gathered before Saint John’s Day (June 24th), otherwise witches would urinate on the herb and it would turn into scentless mayweed (Anthemis arvensis) (Teirlinck, 1926). This belief may have come from the fact that this look-alike plant blooms later than the German chamomile (De Cleene & Lejeune, 2000). In some parts of Germany, chamomile was used as a protective herb and was sometimes arranged into a bundle and attached to a wooden beam in the house; it was believed that if a witch or someone with malicious intent would pass beneath it, the herb would start moving to warn the residents (Teirlinck, 1926).
Furthermore, in the tradition of flower symbolism, chamomile represents strength through resistance; this is probably related to the English proverb, “Like a chamomile bed, the more it is trodden, the more it will spread” (De Cleene & Lejeune, 2000, p. 565).
Apuleius (124-170), a Platonist philosopher who was initiated in several Greco-Roman mysteries, suggested picking chamomile flowers before sunrise if applied for eye problems (as cited in van Wersch, 1977). The reason behind this is not clear; however, it may be because the flowers fold back at night, which makes the flower faintly resemble the shape of an eyeball. Chamomile has traditionally been widely used to soothe eye infections and conjunctivitis (Srivastava et al., 2010). However, eyewashes with chamomile preparations have been shown to induce allergic conjunctivitis in persons suffering from hayfever (Subiza et al., 1990).
The Renaissance herbalists, including Nicholas Culpeper (1643/1850) and Leonard Fuchs (1543/2017), categorized German chamomile as hot and dry in the first degree. According to Culpeper (1643/1850), herbs that are dry in the first degree strengthen the body, while herbs classified as hot abate inflammation and fever, open the pores and promote perspiration. However, many modern herbalists describe German chamomile as primarily cooling (Easley & Horne, 2016; Popham, 2019; Wood, 2008) or neutral (Tierra, 1998). Herbalist Sajah Popham (2019) explains that chamomile can be seen as a “bridging remedy” (para. 11) for the gut due to its bitter and carminative qualities; bitters are usually cooling in nature, while carminative herbs are often warming owing to their high volatile oil content. Interestingly, Popham (2019) states that chamomile is an exception to this general rule because the compounds azulene and chamazulene, which are responsible for the blue-colored essential oil, are cooling in nature.
As an antispasmodic, chamomile relaxes the smooth muscles of the digestive tract, helping to ease cramping and soothe digestive discomforts (Hoffmann, 2003). As a mild bitter, chamomile also stimulates gastric secretions (Gladstar, 1993) and improves the appetite (Hoffmann, 2003). It is often used as an after-dinner tea to ease heartburn, bloating, and indigestion (Johnson et al., 2012). Chamomile’s carminative, antispasmodic, anti-inflammatory, and nervine actions make it a wonderful ally in cases of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), colitis, stomach ulcers, diverticulitis, diarrhea, constipation, and other digestive issues (Hoffmann, 2003; Wood, 2008).
Chamomile tea has a pleasant taste and is safe for children (Easley & Horne, 2016). For the sensitive taste buds of younger children, the mild bitterness of chamomile is almost nonexistent if the tea is allowed to steep for no more than 2 minutes. Herbal historian Maude Grieve (1931/1971) suggests a cold infusion for indigestion. When making a hot infusion, cover tightly when steeping to avoid the loss of volatile oils (Chevallier, 2007). Herbalists consider chamomile an especially useful herb for babies and children, and it is often used in cases of colic (Easley & Horne, 2016; Wood, 2008). A small clinical trial conducted by Salehipoor et al. (2019) looked into the effect of macerated chamomile oil on colic symptoms in infants. During 14 days, 34 infants received 5 drops of the oil topically applied to the abdomen three times per day. The results of this randomized trial suggest that topical application of infused chamomile oil can help improve symptoms of infantile colic (Salehipoor et al., 2019).
Chamomile has been studied on the preclinical level for gastrointestinal problems with favorable results, and more reliable human studies are growing in number. One clinical study found a nine-herb commercial preparation including chamomile to work just as well as the standard medication for dyspepsia (Rösch et al., 2002). Another study used three different herbal preparations in a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial; the two preparations using chamomile worked significantly better than the placebo in reducing abdominal pain associated with irritable bowel syndrome (Madisch et al., 2004).
As a nervine, chamomile makes a delicious, soothing tea used for easing anxiety and tension and promoting restful sleep in both children and adults (Hoffmann, 2003). It is thought that the inhalation of volatile oil present in the vapor when drinking tea is partially responsible for the sedative effect; some volatile flavonoids (e.g., apigenin) may bind to benzodiazepine receptors in the central nervous system (Romm, 2017). Chamomile is considered especially beneficial for those who experience anger and impatience when under stress (Wood, 2008).
One clinical trial reported chamomile had a significant anxiolytic effect in patients with mild to moderate generalized anxiety disorder (Amsterdam et al., 2009). Another study a few years later found that chamomile may also have antidepressant activity, particularly in those experiencing both anxiety and depression; while the mode of action behind this activity is unknown, it may be independent of the herb’s anxiolytic effects and due to a modulating effect on neurotransmitters (Amsterdam et al., 2012).
According to the Doctrine of Signatures, the hollow receptacle of the chamomile flower indicates its effect on the uterus (van Wersch, 1977). Historically, chamomile has been applied to a range of issues surrounding menstrual health and giving birth. German chamomile was known as euanthemon and used by the Hippocratic school as early as 370-460 BCE; the fresh flowers were combined with wine and ingested to stimulate menstrual flow or postpartum bleeding (Dierbach, 2014).
Chamomile’s antispasmodic action is also employed for menstrual cramps (Wood, 2008), and its soothing effects as a nervine may also ease other symptoms of premenstrual syndrome (PMS), such as nervousness (Smith, 2009). According to German physicians and herbalists Fintelmann and Weiss (2002), chamomile’s antispasmodic action is mainly attributed to its flavonoids, which are approximately half the strength of papaverine found in opium poppy (Papaver somniferum). They suggest sipping a hot chamomile tea for rapid reduction of menstrual cramps (Fintelmann & Weiss, 2002). Midwife and herbalist Dr. Aviva Romm (2017) states that chamomile is not one of the stronger uterine antispasmodics, but indicates the herb particularly as an additive to formulas where painful menstruation or endometrial pain is combined with bowel and bladder discomfort.
The application of chamomile for menstrual health is substantiated by research. One clinical study reported a significant reduction in the intensity of both physical and emotional symptoms of PMS in participants given a capsule containing 100 mg of chamomile three times a day (Sharifi et al., 2014). Khalesi et al. (2019) conducted an extensive review of research, including eight clinical trials that looked into the efficacy of chamomile in soothing symptoms of PMS and painful menstruation, and found different chamomile preparations such as oil, capsules, extract, or tea significantly reduced symptoms of PMS compared to a placebo. The mode of action is mainly ascribed to the flavonoid apigenin, which can help reduce the impact of excitatory neurotransmitters and hormones on the mind and body, and ease the overactive response of the sympathetic nervous system implicated in menstrual pain (Khalesi et al. 2019). Furthermore, Mollabashi et al. (2020) looked into the effect of chamomile on the duration, amount of bleeding, and interval of menstrual cycles and found that the 59 participants who received 250 mg of chamomile powder in capsules had a significant reduction of blood loss, while the other parameters were not significantly affected.
As an anti-inflammatory herb, chamomile can be used topically for skin irritations such as rashes, abrasions, and insect bites and stings (Chevallier, 2007). The German Commission E monographs suggest the topical use of chamomile for inflammations and bacterial conditions of the skin (Blumenthal, 1998). Chamazulene, a compound of the essential oil extracted from chamomile (and several other plants in the Asteraceae family) formed from the sesquiterpene lactone matricin after steam distillation of the crude herb, and only found in the extracted essential oil (Evans, 2009), has been shown to have anti-inflammatory properties (Safayhi et al., 1994). Chamomile has traditionally been used as a vulnerary to aid in the mending of wounds (Srivastava et al., 2010). Several studies reported the beneficial effects of chamomile on the skin. A 2011 study found that a chamomile compress was more effective than hydrocortisone for peristomal skin lesions, exhibiting a faster healing time and reduction of pain and itching (Charousaei et al., 2011). Another small double-blind clinical trial showed that a topical application of chamomile extract decreased the weeping of the wound area and aided the healing process of injuries from tattoo dermabrasion (Glowania et al., 1987).
Chamomile’s anti-inflammatory flavonoids, including apigenin, are absorbed by the skin surface, and can also penetrate deeper layers of the body through the skin (Merfort et al., 1994). In traditional Persian herbalism, topically applied chamomile preparations are used to ease joint pain (Hashempur et al., 2017). One randomized clinical trial assessed the effects of chamomile-infused sesame oil on patients with knee osteoarthritis, and found that it significantly improved physical function and reduced patients’ reliance on prescription analgesics (Shoara et al., 2015). Another randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial found that a topical application of chamomile sesame oil could benefit patients suffering from mild to moderate carpal tunnel syndrome by reducing symptom severity and increasing functionality and muscular strength (Hashempur et al., 2017).
